,HS^ RY 0F CONGRESS 



021 302 973 3 



Hollinger Corp. 
P H8.5 



LB 2861 
.13 
1904 
Copy 1 



UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS BULLETIN 



FEBRUARY 15, 1904 

(Entered at Urbana, Illinois, as second-class matter.) 



No. 10 



Con sol id at ion 

n 

Country Schools 





PUBLISHED FORTNIGHTLY BY THE UNIVERSITY. 



RESOLUTIONS 



Whereas, The Illinois Farmers' Institute realizes that there is 
very great need for further improvement in the country schools, and 

Whereas, The consolidation or centralization of country schools 
has been adopted to some extent in several other states, therefore 

"be it -/-- 

Resolved, That the Agricultural College of the University of 
Illinois be requested to collect and publish in this State, exact in- 
formation relating to the methods, the difficulties, and the advan- 
tages of the consolidation of country schools, especially with refer- 
ence to the progress and present status of such consolidation where 
it has been adopted. 



era 






Table of Contents. 



Page 
Introduction ....... 2 

Situation in General ..... 3 

Size and Cost of Country Schools .... 4 

Teachers Available for Country Schools . . 5 

What is Meant by Consolidation .... 6 

What Has Been Done .... 7 

How Consolidation Has Worked . . - . ,. 14 

Superintendent Rankin's Report ... 20 

Cost of Transportation . . . . .31 

Is Transportation Feasible . . . . 32 

Cost of Consolidation . . . . -33 

Objections . . . -. . • 3 5 

Advantages of Consolidation . . . . 35 

Disadvantages and Difficulties . . . 37 

Conclusions . . . . • • 37 

Opinions of Educators .... 40 

The First Consolidated School in Illinois . . 43 



INTRODUCTION 



Agreeable to the request contained in the resolutions adopted 
by the Illinois Farmers' Institute at the Bloomington meeting in 
February, 1903, the College of Agriculture proceeded at once to 
gather reliable information. 

Letters were sent to all the states of the Union asking what 
had been done, if anything, and how it had succeeded. Opinions 
were collected both from professional educators and from farmers 
who had experienced the workings of the system, all from sources 
the most diverse. Aside from this, a trusted agent of the institu- 
tion visited the region in Ohio where the system had been longest 
in use, with instructions to note all the conditions found both favor- 
able and unfavorable. 

The investigation was begun and conducted without bias or 
previously formed impressions as to the merits or demerits, advan- 
tages or disadvantages of this method of administering the school 
system. As the investigation proceeded, however, the conviction 
that is inevitable to anyone who really studies this question grad- 
ually forced itself upon the consciousness and, in spite of efforts to 
the contrary, the reader will detect its presence in the mind of the 
writer at the time of putting the data in final form. 

It is therefore the more necessary to assure the reader that this 
conviction arose during and by virtue of this investigation and that 
it did not exist in advance; indeed there was no opportunity for 
pre-existing opinions because the writer had never before given the 
slightest attention to the details of the subject. 

E. Davenport, 
Dean, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois. 
Urbana, Illinois, January, 1904. 



THE SITUATION IN GENERAL 



In pioneer times, when population was scattered and before 
men had commenced to gather much in cities, most of the schools 
were country schools. These were generally taught by men. They 
were sometimes ignorant it is true, but more often the "dominie" 
was the local preacher and very frequently indeed he was a college 
student bringing the learning of the world to the common school, 
where by personal contact, individual influence and the enthusiasm 
of youth he became a veritable inspiration. In this way many a 
statesman, jurist, and journalist made his first impression on some 
country school, taught during vacation to eke out expenses. Now 
all this is changed. With the development of the times and the 
diversification of industries the proportion of the people living in 
cities has vastly increased, as it must and should, and at these cen- 
ters of population schools have been established the like of which 
had no existence in pioneer times. These schools have been graded 
and developed almost to the extent of becoming small colleges; in- 
deed in the 'west the city high school, which prepares for college as 
well as for life, has almost completely prevented the coming in of 
the old fashioned academy. 

Meantime the country school has not developed. Speaking rel- 
atively, if not absolutely, it has gone backward, because the old- 
time "good teacher" has gone to the city and the old-time "good 
scholar" has followed him, often taking the family and their inter- 
ests along never to return, all operating to sap the vitality of the 
country school, not only as to attendance but as to personal interest 
and financial support as well. Thinking men have long since dis- 
covered that if this emigration to the cities for higher education is 
to continue the country as well as its schools will be sapped of its 
vitality, and this thought has taken form in the expression that the 
country child is entitled to as good educational privileges as the 
city child, and this too without breaking up the family home; that 
anything short of this is unfair to the child and unprofitable to the 
community. 

Eealizing the force and meaning of conditions such as these 
the attempt was made to discover to what extent they actually exist, 
what has been done for their amelioration and with what success 
if any. 



Size and Cost of Country Schools 

In a special bulletin published by the Superintendent of Public 
Instruction of Michigan, in April, 1902, it appears that of the 6,453 
districts of the state, fifty-one had two pupils or fewer and held no 
schools ; that eighty-three schools of the southern peninsula had five 
pupils or fewer; that the average attendance of these schools was 
three; that these eighty-three schools cost $13,636.00 or an average 
of $9.95 per pupil per month, or $99.50 each per year of ten months, 
though the actual number taught averaged fewer than six. It also 
appears that 1,004 schools have fifteen or fewer; that the average at- 
tendance of these schools was but eight ; that the thousand schools 
cost $200,478.13 or an average of $199.67 each, and that the cost 
per pupil was $4.16, per month or $41.60 per year of ten months. 
The same report says that the average cost per pupil in the city 
schools of Michigan is never over $19.40 per year of ten months, 
high schools included, the average cost being much less. 

From this it appears that over a thousand country schools in 
Michigan are maintained at a cost per pupil more than double that 
of the most expensive city schools. In addition to this fact the 
Superintendent estimates that the country people of Michigan pay 
out annually over a million dollars for tuition and other expenses of 
their non-resident pupils from the country seeking higher learning 
in the city schools. 

From the report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction 
of Indiana for 1900, as quoted in a special bulletin on Rural 
Schools, published by the "Township Trustees of Tippecanoe 
County/' it appears that Indiana has 108 schools with an attend- 
ance of five pupils or fewer, ten of which have but one pupil; 
that 487 have between five and ten, and 1,253 between ten and fif- 
teen, or in all 1848 with an attendance of fifteen or fewer. 

From the same source it appears that in 1879 the cost of city 
schools in Indiana was $7.48 per pupil, and of country schools it 
was $6.21 per pupil, but that in 1899, twenty years later, the cost 
of city schools had dropped to $7.07, while the cost of country 
schools of all sizes had risen to an average of $10.50, showing that 
the cost of elementary education in the country is over forty-eight 
per cent, higher than the cost of education in the city including 
the high school course. 

The Missouri Superintendent's report for 1902 shows that 
more than one-fourth of all the schools of that state have fewer 
than twenty pupils and that 575 have fewer than twelve. 



The Iowa Superintendent reports in 1901 that one-half the 
independent districts and three-fourths of the sub-districts of that 
state have an average daily attendance of less than twenty, and 
that 502 independent districts and 2,705 sub-districts have an at- 
tendance of less than ten. 

From this it appears that, largely due to the emigration of 
the more advanced pupils to the city schools, the country schools 
are growing not only smaller and less efficient but relatively more 
costly. On this point the Trustees of Tippecanoe county, Indiana, 
say, "These conditions have come upon us so gradually that they 
may have escaped our notice, or if our attention has been called to 
them there has seemed no remedy. There is but one remedy and 
that is to collect the pupils together into larger groups by means 
of transportation." 

Teachers Available foe Country Schools 

The inability of small, weak schools, such as have been' de- 
scribed, to pay large wages is manifest ; but it is also well to realize 
the available supply of teachers for the country schools in general 
as they are today. In other words, "what are their chances of get- 
ting a 'good teacher' ?" 

On this point the Iowa report of 1901 says, "of the 21,034 
teachers licensed in 1900, 3,560 had no experience whatever in 
teaching, and 4,208 had taught less than one year." Thus 7,768 
or more than one-third were inexperienced, not to mention the 
large and unknown number of "experienced" but unsuccessful 
teachers. 

Iowa further reports that of the 21,034 licensed teachers, 
7,228 or oyer one-third hold third grade certificates, and of this 
number 6,167 or over six-sevenths were issued to females, "pre- 
sumably young girls just out of school, many of them not having 
completed even the common school course." And the Superin- 
tendent adds, "This department has advised the county superin- 
tendents not to issue third grade certificates except where it is 
unavoidable in order to procure teachers to supply schools that 
otherwise would have to be closed for want of teachers. This pol- 
icy has been universally followed by the county superintendents of 
Iowa. They report that they issue third grade certificates for the 
purpose of filling the schools." * * * "Many of them (the 
candidates) have little or nothing (in the way of schooling) beyond 
the district school which they propose to teach." 



6 

The above is a fair sample of what runs through the reports 
from nearly all the states when this subject is touched upon, and 
they nearly all not only allude to it but treat it at length and with 
more evident concern than any other problem connected with the 
public schools. Moreover they all arrive at the same conclusion, 
namely, that the only remedy is fewer schools and larger ones, em- 
phasizing the necessity of a less number of teachers at better wages 
and therefore securing not only better talent and training but also 
a better division of labor and better supervision. 

What is Meant by Consolidation 

By Consolidation of Schools is meant the uniting of two, 
three or more small and weak schools into one that shall be large 
enough in point of numbers to be interesting and strong enough 
in the way of money to afford a comfortable building, one or more 
good teachers, and reasonable facilities for work. It also means 
that outlying territory with but few children shall be combined 
with a near-by school that is strong, rather than be organized into 
an independent but weak district. In its fullest sense it means 
the uniting of all the schools of a township into one or two so 
located as to be most accessible, though not necessarily at the geo- 
graphic center. 

Consolidation either in full or in part means the transporta- 
tion of a portion of the pupils, and this is one of the problems. It 
is generally accomplished in covered wagons, artificially warmed, 
holding fifteen to twenty children and driven by reliable men un- 
der contract and bonds as to regularity and good behavior. At first 
thought this would seem expensive, but experience has shown that 
this is not the difficulty for it is cheaper to transport a few chil- 
dren than to establish a school for them. This is because a wagon 
is cheaper than a school house, horses are cheaper than fuel, and 
drivers cost less than school teachers. 

Consolidation also means, where small districts already exist, 
some changes in buildings. These changes are sometimes effected 
by moving together two or more of the little old buildings, or by 
adding a portion to one, thus making a two or three-room house. 
In other instances new buildings are erected. All these ways are 
open. A makeshift seems often best at first until the plan is 
in full operation, when a permanent building seems certain to fol- 
low in good time. Where an expensive permanent building is 
erected at first and a graded school established the cost of this better 



school more than swallows up the saving from consolidation and the 
public mind is sometimes confused and even misled as to the real 
source of increased expense. 

What Has Been Done 

From the various sources of information consulted it appears 
that consolidation commenced in Massachusetts under the law of 
1869, and was first operative in Quincy in 1874, since which time 
"more than 65 per cent, of the towns ( townships) have found it 
necessary or advantageous to close and consolidate some schools." 
In 1893 Superintendent Seymour Eockwell wrote, "For eight- 
een years we have had the best attendance from transported chil- 
dren ; no more sickness among them, and no accidents. The children 
like the plan exceedingly. We have saved the town (townships) 
at least $600.00 a year/' 

From this and from independent centers the plan has spread 
until it is in operation to a greater or less extent in twenty states, 
not of a single section of the Union, but of all sections, notably in 
Massachusetts, Connecticut, New Hampshire, Vermont, Ohio, In- 
diana, Iowa, and Kansas, and to some extent in Maine, Rhode 
Island, New York, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Minnesota, North 
Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Missouri, Georgia and Florida, 
and at this writing the first consolidated school in Illinois is about 
to open at Seward, Winnebago County. 

Massachusetts reports that in over 65 per cent, of the towns 
(townships) consolidation in whole or in part is in operation, and 
that in the year 1901-2 the sum of $151,773.47 was expended for 
the transportation of children. Some of this goes for hired driv- 
ers, some for street car fare, some to parents for delivering their 
children, and some to patrons who convey not only their own chil- 
dren but those of their neighbors as well. 

Iowa reports that consolidation has been adopted in sixty- 
three districts of twenty-eight counties and transportation in eighty 
districts of thirty-five counties. 

As showing what has been done in Iowa and as a sample of 
what is being done in many states a brief extract* is added giving 
particulars of the Consolidated School at Buffalo Center : 

"The central school is located only one mile from the western boun- 
dary line of the district, thus making it extremely difficult on account of 
the distance to transport the children from these two remote portions of 
the township. The two rural schools maintained by the board are con- 
*Prom State Superintendent's Report, 1901. 



8 

sidered superior in many ways to the ordinary school, since they are. un- 
der the supervision of the principal of the central school, and are main- 
tained for the same length of time each year as the central school. 

"Contracts for the year 1900-1901 provide for the transportation of 
ninety-eight children. Six routes are laid out and one team is provided 
for each. 

"The greatest distance the children most remote from the central 
school on the different routes are conveyed is as follows : Route 1, three 
and one-fourth miles; Route 2, four and one-half miles; Route 3, five 
and one-half miles ; Route 4, five and three-fourths miles ; Route 5, five 
and one-half miles; Route 6, six and one-fourth miles. The average dis- 
tance the children are conveyed on the longest route is about four miles. 

"What can be said of the roads? Comparatively speaking, this 
is one of the newer counties, and roads have not been so thoroughly 
graded and drained as in old settled sections ; consequently, the roads are 
not so good as in many parts of the state. 

"What length of time is required to convey children to and from the 
central school? The time required depends upon the condition of the 
roads. When very muddy, as was the case when the writer visited the 
district in 1900, the drivers began collecting the children from 7:15 a. m. 
to 8:15 a. m., according to the length of the route, and returned them to 
their homes from 4 145 p. m., to 5 .-45 p. m. 

"The compensation paid drivers is $30 per month, except on Route 
1, where only $25 are paid. For this amount they are required to furnish 
their own properly covered, strong, safe, suitable vehicles, subject to the 
approval of the board, with comfortable seats, and a safe, strong, quiet 
team, with proper harness, with which to convey and collect safely and 
comfortably all of the pupils of school age on the route, and to furnish 
warm, comfortable blankets or robes sufficient for the best protection and 
comfort for each and all of the pupils to and from the public school build- 
ing and their respective homes. They agree to collect all of the pupils on 
the route by driving to each and all of the homes where pupils reside each 
morning that school is in session in time to convey the pupils to school, 
so as to arrive at the school building not earlier than 8 :40 a. m. nor later 
than 8 .-45 a. m., and return the pupils to their homes, leaving the building 
at 4.00 p. m., or later, as the board may determine. 

"They are required to personally drive and manage the team, and to 
refrain from the use of any profane or vulgar language within the hearing 
or presence of the pupils ; nor may they use tobacco in any form during 
the time they are conveying the children to and from school. They are 
not permitted to drive faster than a trot nor race with any team, and are 
required to keep order and report improper conduct on the part of pupils, 
to the principal or president of the board. 

"It is further provided between the driver and the board that one-half 
of the previous month's wages shall be retained to insure the faithful per- 
formance of the contract. 

"In 1894 the district township was composed of six sub-districts, and 
required six buildings, six teachers, six sets of apparatus — in fact all of 
the equipment necessary for one district was required by each of the 
others. 



9 

"The secretary's report of that township for the year ending Septem- 
ber, 1894, (before consolidation,) shows that during the year the schools 
were in session six months and the average daily attendance for the en- 
tire district township was ninety. 

For the year ending September, 1900. (after consolidation,) eight 
teachers were employed for nine months, and the average daily attendance 
was 290. Estimating the average cost of tuition per month per pupil upon 
the total expenditures for school purposes, we find it to have been $5.03 in 
1894, under the plan of separate schools, while in 1900 (under consolida- 
tion) it was $2.31." 

Indiana reports 181 wagons transporting 2.599 children in 
fifty-one counties of the state, the largest number being in La- 
Grange County, where twenty wagons carry 300 children each day 
and in Whitley County, where seventy-three wagons carry 1,114 
children. 

What has been done in Tippecanoe County is given here as 
examples of partial consolidation and as showing what can be 
gained by the first steps:* 

"Last year the pupils of district No. 13, Perry township, were con- 
veyed to district No. 2, at a cost of one dollar per day, saving about $200 
to the township. This attempt was successful during the year in nearly 
every feature. The union of the two schools gave an enrollment of 
twenty-seven pupils, about the minimum number for a good working 
school. 

"School No. 10, Washington Township, has been very small for some 
time, last year enrolling but eight pupils. The trustee, J. C. Eckhart, 
abandoned the school, the contract for transportation being let to the 
lowest bidder, under bond. The pupils of that district are transported to 
district No. 2— the Buck Creek High School— at a cost of $1.25 per day, 
saving about $150 for the township. The distance is about four miles and 
patrons are well pleased with the service. 

"School No. 11, Tippecanoe Township, has been gradually decreasing 
in numbers for several terms, the enumeration last spring being eleven, 
with five or six to attend. The school was abandoned and the trustee, 
J. M. Chenoweth, had the pupils transported to school No. 2, at a cost of 
$1.25 a day, saving about $150 to the township. 

"School No. 3, in Shelby Township, was abandoned about the first of 
December. The enrollment was but six. This will save about $150. The 
pupils are easily accommodated in other schools. 

"School No. 3, Fairfield Township, was closed by the trustee, Eldon 
L. Lane. No transportation was provided, no expense was incurred. The 
school, situated on the township line, enrolled five or six pupils from 
Fairfield Township and a like number from other townships. The per 
capita cost of this school was nearly $75 per pupil. 

"School No. 5, Fairfield Township, which last year enrolled five pu- 
pils, two from this township, burned down during the term and was not 

*From Report Superintendent of Public Instruction for Indiana for 1900. 



10 

rebuilt, since there were not pupils enough to sustain it. Last term this 
school was maintained at the rate of $120 per capita cost. The abandon- 
ment of this school saves about $450 to the township. 

"School No. 10, Wayne Township, was closed by Trustee J. H. Chalk 
without expense. The school has not enrolled to exceed ten pupils in the 
last two terms. The pupils were easily accommodated in school No. 6, 
The abandoning of this school has decreased the expense of the school $300. 

"These examples show the growth of the idea of centralization. Much 
more can and probably will be done next year. Nearly every township 
could do something in this line and some are so situated that they can 
do a great deal. 

"In the township where the seven village teachers enrolled 218 pupils 
and the six rural teachers eighty-four pupils, none of the rural schools 
are to exceed three miles from a village, these villages could easily accom- 
modate every pupil in the township. Eight teachers could do the work 
formerly done by thirteen and no pupil wouid be transported over four 
miles. In the township where the six schools enrolled 148 pupils and the 
five, sixty-eight pupils ; the five small schools are located not over three 
miles from one of the best two-roomed buildings in the county. Two 
teachers here could easily do the work formerly done by five and a sixth 
school near the building might be added. Four of the houses so aban- 
doned in this township are old buildings, which will soon have to be re- 
placed with new ones at a cost of several thousand dollars. Yet the work 
can be better done at the central building and the same money that gave 
the township between six and seven months' school would give it eight 
or nine months. In the township where the four schools, located not over 
three miles from a village, enrolled forty-five pupils, the village could 
accommodate three of them without an additional teacher." 

Ohio reports consolidation in operation in forty-five townships 
in twenty counties of the state and the superintendent adds, "I am 
satisfied there are many more though not reported. In my judg- 
ment centralization is a substantial solution of the vexed country 
school problem." Partly to show what has been done in Ohio, and 
partly for information on the general subject the following clip- 
ping is given in full : 

* Centralization of Rural Schools, by C. G. Williams, member of the 
Board of Education, Gustavus, Trumbull County, Ohio. 

"Gustavus is a typical rural township of the Western Reserve cover- 
ing twenty-five square miles, with a little hamlet composed of eighteen 
dwelling houses, two churches, town hall, school building, one store, and 
finally a blacksmith shop at the center, and some eight hundred population 
scattered promiscuously over the township, with a school enumeration of 
about two hundred and forty. 



* Prom September number, 1902, of the Ohio Teacher. Quoted from Kern's 
•'The Country School and The Country Child. 



11 

DECREASE IN POPULATION 

"In common with many rural communities there has been a falling off 
in population in recent years. In fact there are fewer people living in our 
township today than there were sixty years ago. No manufacturing, and 
nothing save agricultural and live stock interests. Less population and 
fewer children in our schools. The time came when it seemed impolitic 
to maintain our usual number of sub-district schools. Up to August '98, 
we had mantained nine sub-district schools as conveniently located as 
possible, with a free high school at the center of the township, which any 
pupil was at liberty to attend when he could pass the required examina- 
tion. Some few of these sub-district schools were attended by twenty to 
twenty-five pupils ; others had an attendance of five to ten, and one school 
was kept up for several months for only two pupils. Since the above date 
we have been accommodating our school population in a five-room building 
located near the center of our township, to and from which every pupil 
living more than one-half mile from the center is conveyed at public 
expense.* 

NINE COVERED WAGONS 

"Built expressly for this purpose with a view to comfort and health 
of occupants and owned by the route contractors, call at the home of 
every pupil in the morning, and return every pupil to his home after school. 
Our routes vary in length from two and one-half to five miles, and cost 
us from 68c to $1.55 per day. These routes are let to 'the lowest responsi- 
ble and satisfactory bidder. In the letting of routes the moral character 
of the contractor is taken into consideration and he is put under strict 
bond, not only to do the work, but is held responsible under the Superin- 
tendent of Schools for both the comfort and the moral condition and order 
in his wagon in transit. 

CHEAP TRANSPORTATION 

"To many people the price at which we are able to let our routes is 
a matter of surprise. It should be remembered that during the greater 
part of the year both trips can be made in four hours or less, and that 
during the balance of the year when more time is required, our contract- 
ors (usually farmers with few acres who have to keep a team of horses 
anyhow) are not very busy upon their farms. We have never yet had any 
trouble in letting our routes, and of late we have not had enough routes 
to supply all who would like them. 

PROVIDING FOR EMERGENCIES 

"Before this system was put into operation some prospective patrons 
worried a little as to' what might happen should a child be taken ill at 
school, in some instances a long way from home. Our Board of Educa- 
tion has thought best to provide against that trouble by contracting with a 
man to take any pupil immediately to his home that the Superintendent 
thinks should for any reason go home. We have not as yet had to ex- 
pend over $3 any year for this purpose. It surely is a comfort to a par- 
ent to know his child will be brought home if occasion demands it. 

*For cut showing routes of travel, see Supt. Rankin's Report, p. 27. 



12 

"Speaking of opposition it should be recorded that when the proposi- 
tion came before our voters for indorsement four years ago at our annual 
spring election, it was defeated upon a tie vote. Three weeks thereafter 
the same, or a very similar proposition was submitted to our voters and, 
with practically every vote in our township cast, centralization carried by 
a majority of only seventeen votes. It will be seen that public sentiment 
was pretty evenly divided and that the new system and the new school 
would have very many critics. 

THE REAE TEST 

"It is a fair question to ask, how have these opponents been pleased? 
Perhaps as good evidence as I can bring to the readers of The Ohio 
Teacher, is the result of an investigation and canvass of our township made 
by a visiting committee from another county of the state in their efforts 
to determine how the new system was working. This visiting committee 
was composed of two members, one of whom was sent here as an oppon- 
ent, the other as a friend of centralization. Their canvass was made after 
our school had been in operation two years. This committee spent several 
days in our community visiting not only the school but many of the par- 
ents of the pupils at their homes, and particularly those people who resided 
farthest from the school. Their report to their own Board of Education 
(afterward published) shows seven out of fifty-four people interviewed to 
be yet opposed to centralization. But of the seven opposed to the system 
six were without children in attendance upon school. This was two years 
ago. I think public sentiment is even more in favor of the "new way" 
now than then. 

CENTRALIZATION IS HERE TO STAY 

"As further evidence that centralization is here to stay attention should 
be called to the fact that while Gustavus was the first township in this 
county to adopt this system, since we have adopted it every township ad- 
joining us have adopted it, and at the present time has in operation sim- 
ilar schools. Those who are nearest us seem to be most favorably im- 
pressed with its benefits. 

"As to the comparative expense of our public schools conducted in the 
old and new way : The last year in which we worked under the old sys- 
tem our expenses were as follows: Teachers, $2,400; other expenses, $555; 
total, $2,955. 

"Under the new system, for the year ending August, 1901 : Teachers, 
$1,320; hauling pupils, $1,755; other expenses, $200; total, $3,275. 

"Deduct from this $75 received from foreign tuition (not received 
under old system) and we have an extra expense' of $245 for the well 
supervised and graded central school as compared with the "hit-or-miss" 
sub-district way. For the year ending August, 1902, we employed an 
extra teacher at an expense of $240 more. With a larger daily attendance 
under centralization the per capita expense is about the same.. Our tax- 
able property is in the neighborhood of $370,000, and our tax rate for 
school purposes, 9 or 10 mills on the dollar. 



13 

ADVANTAGES OF GRADED SCHOOLS 

"I need hardly take any of yoflr space in considering the advantages 
of a good graded school as compared with the average sub-district school. 
Under a competent superintendent, with large numbers and consequently 
greater interest and enthusiasm, with better teachers, more satisfactory 
apparatus, more regular attendance, and absolutely no tardiness, it goes 
without saying that we have a school beyond all comparison with our 
former sub-district school. It costs a little more money in our case but 
we are getting more than value received for it, and when this is true the 
tax payer who has the interest of the public at heart is satisfied. 

OUR COURSE OF STUDY 

"is likely very similar to the ordinary village special district school, with 
the possible exception that we have more work along the line of nature 
study than is usually given. This is true of all grades. 

"Among the advantages not already mentioned I should not fail to 
include the fact that we are able to keep the older boys in school longer. 
Under the old system most of them dropped out before reaching the high 
school. There is no gap now to bridge over — no changing from an iso- 
lated sub-district school to a high school elsewhere." 

In the Province of Victoria, Australia, "158 schools were 
closed by the plan of consolidation and after deducting the cost of 
conveyance the saving amounted to $50,000 per annum. The Min- 
ister says that it is a marked success and that if one feature as to 
its working stands out more prominently than an other it is the 
remarkable regularity in attendance of the children conveyed." 

A later report from Victoria is quoted in the Eeport of the 
Superintendent of Public Instruction for Iowa, for 1901, as fol- 
lows: 

"Under the system of conveyance 241 schools have been closed. 
The saving in closed schools amounts to about £14,170 (over 
$70,000.00) per annum. The attendance is so regular and the sys- 
tem so popular that applications are constantly made for its ex- 
tension." 

In Massachusetts 1898-9 eighty-five schools were closed and 
773 pupils were transported at an average cost of $13.90 each. In 
Connecticut forty-five townships have consolidated schools with free 
transportation for children. 

Vermont reports the conveyance of 7,651 pupils to and from 
school at an expense of $36,000 per term, and in the fifteen or six- 
teen other states where consolidation is in partial operation, or has 
been but recently introduced, all indications are that it will be 
rapidly extended. This conclusion is reached from the fact that 
consolidation is generally at first vigorously opposed, especially 



14 

where the district plan is already in operation, but no case has been 
discovered where it has ever been abandoned after having once been 
tried. 

How It Has Worked 

It is always easy to find sentiment either for or against any 
proposition, but it is difficult to find and to exhibit an accurate 
measure of public opinion on the opposite sides of this question. 
Place has been given to the following letters partly because they 
represent the views of patrons rather than those of educators, and 
partly because they treat of both sides of the question. They are 
all of the answers received up to date of going to press, and there- 
fore give as true a picture as possible of the views in Hamilton 
Township, Indiana, after actual trial with complete consolidation. 

*Lbtters From Patrons of Consolidated Schools 

Superintendent Jones, of Indiana, says: 

"I mailed uniform letters to the patrons of the consolidated 
school asking them to write me full and frank expressions of their 
opinions in relation to the success of the plan. The following are 
all of the replies received up to date :" 

October 21, 1902. 

"Mr. Jones: 

Dear Sir: — I received your letter, wanting my opinion on the con- 
solidation of schools. I think it is far better than the district school 
system. I think we need a larger building, large enough for all of the 
grades to be in one building, or better rooms for the first, second and 
third grades. Our children did very well last winter and so far this 
winter. Henry Grumpp." 

Shideler, Ind v October 21, 1902. 
"Mr. F. L. Jones, Indianapolis, Ind.: 

"Kind Sir : — Your request at hand and contents noted. As a patron 
of the consolidated schools, I wish to say that I have reasons to favor 
and reasons to oppose the consolidation of our schools. 

"Yes, I think the consolidated schools give our children better advan- 
tages than do the district schools, for the reason, first, we are able to get 
better qualified instructors, because we do not have to hire so many. And 
then a well-qualified man will not go into a small district school. So, you 
see, it is a long step toward enabling us to perfect the profession of 
school teaching. Next, it throws a larger number of children of the same 
grade together, enabling them to exchange ideas. Next, it enables us to 
get more and better apparatus, for one school is easier supplied than eight 



*From the Report of the Superintendent of Public Instruction for Indiana, 
1902 



15 

or ten. Next, a saving in fuel. Next, and of much importance, our chil- 
dren step out of the homes into a nice, dry (and warm, if need be,) 
wagon, and are so conducted to and from the schoolhouse without any 
wet backs or feet and no quarreling or fighting, being under a competent 
driver. 

"But I think we must go slowly. We must have good roads, or the 
slowness in travel will be a very great impediment. Another objection 
that we people in the country make is that there is danger of there being 
things introduced into the consolidated schools that pertain more to form 
than to utility. For instance, standing out of doors to be marched in, or 
too much gymnastics; we do not need that in the country, because we 
have chores for our boys and girls. I speak on these matters from close 
observation and strong convictions, desiring to take the conservative view 
rather than the radical on either side. I was once strongly opposed to 
this, but am now in favor of it under favorable conditions. And finally, 
since you have asked my opinion, I would candidly, frankly and honestly 
say, plan well, go slow, move only the smaller schools first and look away 
ahead as to where you will locate your house so as to best accommodate 
those who may in the present and future wish to be accommodated. This 
is a matter of very grave importance. If I could talk to you, face to 
face, I possibly would be able to illustrate my points more clearly; how- 
ever, as it is, I remain your well wisher in all things you undertake with 
strong convictions and honesty of purpose. 

"I feel highly complimented, I assure you, with having the privilege 
to address you on this very important question. 

"Yours sincerely, 

"A. J. YOHEY." 

Muncie, Ind., October 24, 1902. 
"Superintendent F. L. Jones, Indianapolis, Ind.: 

"MJy Dear Sir: — In reply to your inquiry concerning the consolida- 
tion of schools in Hamilton Township, Delaware County, Indiana, I will 
say that I am exceedingly well pleased with the change from the district 
system to the consolidated school system. I have one child, a girl of 
sixteen years of age, to send to school. She is now taking the first year 
of high school work. Under the present system I will be able to give her 
a full high school course and yet have her under my care and protection. 
I find that the school spirit is increased by having the larger number of 
pupils assembled together as compared to that of the small district school. 

"I find that the health of the children is much better. There is no 
exposure to storms in bad weather. The wagons protect them from the 
wind and rain, consequently there is little trouble from coughs and colds. 
There is some saving in the wear of clothing, particularly shoes. I am 
not inconvenienced from my work to see that my child is placed in school 
or returned during stormy days. The wagon is in charge of a competent 
driver, who takes my child from my door in the morning and returns her 
there again at night. This is a great relief to me. 

"There is some talk of combining the entire township into one school. 
I am heartily in favor of the plan of so doing. A commissioned high 



16 

school could then be established, with all the advantages of gradation in 
the lower grades. In conclusion, I will say that I approve of the system. 

"Very truly, 

"J. C. Kauffman.'" 

Muncie, Ind., October 24, 1902. 
"Superintendent F. L. Jones, Indianapolis, Ind.: 

"My Dear Sir: — Your letter of inquiry concerning the consolidation 
of schools in my township — Hamilton Township, Delaware County, Indi- 
ana — is at hand. In reply I will say that I am very much satisfied with 
the movement. I am sending one child to the school. Under the present 
plan I am relieved of all concern about the child's getting to and from 
the school during bad weather. The wagon passes my door each morning 
and evening. I find that the health of my child is better. There is not 
so much trouble with coughs and colds which may result from wet feet. 
The wagons are warm and dry and there is no necessity for the child be- 
ing exposed. There is some economy in the cost of clothing. 

"The gradation of the schpol is much better. The school spirit is 
high and the children take a deeper interest in the work. It is much eas- 
ier to keep the larger children in the school than when sending to the 
small district school. I will now have a high school close at hand and 
can feel that my child will be under home protection until she is old 
enough to care for herself. 

"I am in favor of the entire township being united into one school. 
I think it is possible to do this. I am a member of the Township Advisory 
Board, and am ready to give anything that will advance the interests of 
my township my most earnest support. I think that the consolidation of 
schools is a movement in the right line. Very truly, 

"Joseph Sheets." 

Muncie, Ind., October 19, 1902. 
"Mr. F. L. Jones, Indianapolis, Ind.: 

"Dear Sir : — In reply to consolidation of schools I will say that I think 
it is a greater benefit to children than public schools for this one reason, 
that the teacher can more plainly explain the matter to the children and 
make them understand much better by teaching one or two grades than 
teaching seven or eight. I am well pleased with consolidation of schools. 

"Yours truly, 

"Geo. F. Wissel. 

Royerton, Ind., October 20, 1902. 
"Mr. F. L. Jones, Superintendent, Indianapolis, Ind.: 

"Dear Sir: — Your letter or request is at hand, asking my opinion 
about consolidation of schools. While I have not fully considered the 
subject, and at the same time the consolidation of schools being almost 
in infancy, it is yet too soon to determine what is best. But will reply. 
In the beginning I was not in favor of consolidation of schools. Can not 
say that I am yet. While the children may learn some faster, having the 
advantages of being in larger classes and have most likely, better teachers 
and other surroundings, yet there are some objections of vital importance. 
While we all love to have our children educated, we must not force them 



17 

too fast. At the same time we must learn to look after their health, 
whether it is best to crowd so many in one room or house them like sheep 
in a fold. One great objection of consolidated schools over the district 
schools is this, if fatal diseases are carried or start in these schools, then 
most all of the children of the township are exposed to it. Then under 
the ruling of. the Board of Health of our county the school must close 
from thirty to forty days, while in district schools, if one is exposed, the 
other schools not exposed can go on. Still more, I am not certain the 
hauling of the children is the best for them at all times. True, there are 
days in stormy weather of rain and sleet, the hauling of them is nice, but 
in general is it not better for them to walk to school for health, by having 
exercise, than to leave a warm room, jump into a cold wagon and ride 
from one to three miles? There are thoughts that must come into the 
mind of every parent if the hauling system is to go on. I would have 
the township trustee to be very careful in hiring the teams, get good, 
gentle teams and careful drivers. 

"Now to the point : I have been in Hamilton township, this county, 
over forty-seven years ; have paid my taxes to help build all the school- 
houses in the township, and we had good schools; the people were satis- 
fied. Now, under the consolidation, the schoolhouses are going down, 
school lots not cared for, windows be.ing broken ; good many of the people 
are feeling sore as to the property loss of thousands of dollars ; and now, 
if the consolidation of schools is to hold good, there must be greater tem- 
ples built. More rooms to accommodate the children — more taxes. The 
American people are progressive, but they are going at a rapid rate. I 
am not an old fogy on the subject at all. You wanted my views. I do 
not think it will be long till they will fall back to the district schools. 
Many of the profound scholars of the day never saw a consolidated school 
or were hauled to school in a wagon. While this new system may prove 
better than many believe, yet it is to be thoroughly tested before final 
decision. Not condemning the school so far as it has been going on and 
hope it may prove better for all than many of us think, yet with what 
advantage children have over the district schools will hardly warrant a 
success. Yours truly, 

"T. F. KlRBY." 

Royerton, Ind., October 14, 1902. 
"Mr. Frank L. Jones, Indianapolis, Ind.: 

"Dear Sir : — The per cent, of attendance in grades one and two, and 
grades three and four are as follows : Those who ride, 93.7 — 96.8 ; those 
who walk, 93.4—96.8. Yours very truly, 

"Mabel E. Blazier, 
"Bessie Stretcher/' 

Muncie, Ind., October 26, 1902. 
"Mr. F. L. Jones, Indianapolis, Ind.: 

"Dear Sir: — I am very glad to express my opinion on the consolida- 
tion of the Royerton school. I can say I am very well pleased with the 
school this term. I think it is a greater advantage to pupils than the old 
method. Yours truly, 

"F. M. PlTTENGER." 



18 . 

Muncie, Ind., October 20, 1902. 
"Mr. F. L. Jones, Indianapolis, Ind.: 

"Dear Sir: — Your letter dated October 16th at hand requesting a 
statement from me on the advantages of consolidation of schools, or 
rather what advantage it is to us in our township. 

"There are several different ways in which we find it an advantage. 
In the first place, as in our case, where we have children ready for the 
high school work, they have an opportunity for that work without the 
extra expense and trouble of sending them to the city. Then again, the 
convenience of having a wagon for transportation to and from school 
while the distance is much greater, the time taken up in going and com- 
ing is very little more than if they were walking the one and one-fourth 
miles to the district school. 

"Again, with six years' personal experience in teaching and a part of 
that time in a graded school, I know of the advantage in having large 
classes, namely, where they are not too large there is more enthusiasm, 
more interest taken in the recitations. 

"As to the primary work in the consolidated school, one advantage is 
in getting the little fellows to school dry and .warm. However, I am 
afraid that our wagon is hardly warm enough for very cold weather. 

"Another advantage in the primary work is that each teacher has 
fewer grades and is enabled to give more attention to each separate grade. 

"The disadvantages that seemed to appear at the beginning are now 
in the background and are disappearing as the plan becomes older and 
more in use. One of the most prominent disadvantages talked of was the 
effect of contagious diseases getting into the school, infecting so many 
more at once than in each separate district, but the danger of spreading 
such diseases is prevented by the co-operation of the trustee and the driv- 
ers of the different wagons. 

"There are many other advantages that might be enumerated here, 
but these few thoughts will show you that I am decidedly in favor of con- 
solidation as conducted in Hamilton township, Delaware county. 
"Yours very respectfully, 

"O. M. Sharp." 

These letters on all sides of the question, consisting as they do 
of all the answers to Superintendent Jones' inquiry, afford the best 
measure attainable of public sentiment, not as founded upon an- 
ticipated difficulties but after actual trial of the system. 

Iowa tested public sentiment in the various counties both 
where consolidation had been tried and where it had not been tried. 
Of the schools where it had been in actual operation, fifty-one were 
well pleased with consolidation and fifty-three with transportation, 
while three were "dissatisfied with the driver;" one was "not very 
well satisfied;" one was "not very enthusiastic;" four "complained 
of delays by bad roads ;" twelve were "divided" upon the question 
of transportation though six of the twelve were in one county and 



19 

reported at the same time, better schools at less expense." Nine 
that had tried consolidation and seven that had tried transportation 
did not report. 

The following table taken from the Massachusetts report of 
1902, shows the amounts of money expended in that state for con- 
veyance of children for the last ten years, the increase being a good 
measure of the success of the system in the public estimation. 

Table Showing the Total Expenditure for the Conveyance 
of Children for the Past Ten Years in Massachusetts. 



Years Conveyance" Increase Years Conveyance 1 ' Increase 

1891-1892 $38,726 07 $ 8,077 39 1896-1897 $105,317 13 $14,181 02 

1892-1893 50,590 41 11,844 34 1897-1898 123,032 41 17,715 28 

1893-1894 63,617 98 13,027 57 1898-1899 127,409 22 4,376 81 

1894-1895 76,608 29 12,990 31 1899-1900 141,753 84 14,344 62 

1895-1896 91,136 11 14,527 82 1900-1901 151,773 47 10,019 63 



The first conveyance returns were gathered for the year 1888- 
1889, when the expenditure was only $22,118.38. 

The people of the Township of Green, Ohio, were divided and 
"waited for the result of the experiment in Gustavus Township." 
After two years of observation they were satisfied and proceeded to 
build a new "steam-heated, well-lighted, well-ventilated brick 
building" with six large rooms and two smaller ones. For a cut 
of this building see Superintendent Eankin's report, p. 24. They 
established a library, bought a piano and employed eight wagons to 
convey the children. 

In May, 1900, a committee of two citizens, one for and one 
against consolidation, was sent from a township in Warren county, 
Ohio, to investigate and report upon the facts as they found them 
in Gustavus Township. The report, signed by both members of the 
committee stated that persons known to favor the plan were pur- 
posely passed by; that fifty-four persons were questioned and their 
answers were as stated in the report. Of that number forty-three 
were for, seven against and four indifferent to the plan. Of the 
seven who declared against it, six were without children of school 
age, and of the four who were indifferent, none had children of 
school age. "Of all the fifty-four we find," said the committee, 
"but one person with children who was opposed to centralization." 



20 

Superintendent Rankin's Report 

In order to secure information at first hand Mr. Fred H. Ran- 
kin, Superintendent of College Extension, was sent to those coun- 
ties in the Western Reserve where consolidation has been longest 
tried and is in most complete operation. He visited schools and 
homes, rode in the wagons, talked with patrons, pupils, and drivers, 
and by every means at his disposal undertook to learn the exact 
condition of things. His report is printed in full : 

Professor Eugene Davenport, Dean, College of Agriculture, Urbana, III. 

Dear Sir : — The writer herewith makes brief report of a visit made in 
May, 1902, to Indiana and Ohio for the purpose of personally investigating 
the working of the centralized school system. 

Acting under direction of the College of Agriculture and having no 
bias or preconceived personal opinion it was the endeavor to look for exact 
conditions, and by just comparisons in townships where the system of 
centralized schools might be found in operation both alone, and in con- 
nection with other schools determine what had been gained or lost by 
consolidation. 

A stop was made at Indianapolis, Indiana, where State Superintendent 
Jones informed me that centralization of the district schools is going on 
in many parts of the state and that it was proving satisfactory in the 
main. He said, that while there had been some occasional surface dis- 
turbance there was on the other hand a steady, constant undercurrent carry- 
ing the sentiment of centralization into new communities. Transportation 
is a success. The township system prevails in this state and the township 
trustee has the power to close the school and transport children at public 
expense. 

Some forty counties in Indiana have begun the work of collecting 
pupils into larger groups by transporting them. In talking with a number 
of pupils of the schools and those who have observed the system through- 
out the state, the testimony is nearly unanimous that attendance is im- 
proved by the conveyance of pupils, and in the minds of the majority the 
many advantages outweigh some of the disadvantages which may be 
named. Over sixty per cent of the towns and districts report the cost as 
less but the results as better after consolidation. About fifteen per cent 
report the cost as being the same and ten per cent that the system costs 
more, but the results are better. In the newer districts where the system 
was adopted about three-fourths of the patrons seem to approve of the 
plan and earnestly advocate it. Some are in a measure indifferent and a 
few are opposed to it, although in those communities where it has been 
practiced the longest the opposition is the least. Professor W. C. Latta 
of the College of Agriculture at Lafayette, who is also State Superintend- 
ent of Farmers' Institutes says, that while some disadvantages and ob- 
jections are noted yet in general the success of the new plan, when tried, 
seems remarkable and decisive. Mr. John S. Boord, a prominent farmer 
of Fountain County, says,"Two years ago in Van Buren Township the trus- 
tees began the experiment. At first only three hacks were used at the 



21 

Stone Bluff school. Last year several of the school houses were sold and 
more hacks added and this year it is the plan to close all the schools ex- 
cepting at two buildings and transport the pupils there." These build- 
ings cost about $8,000 and are fully up-to-date in every needed particular. * 
The patrons like it after trying the plan and there is hardly a person who 
expresses opposition even though opposed to it before trying the experi- 
ment. 

The tour of inspection next led to northern Ohio. Trumbull, Ash- 
tabula, Geauga, Lake and Portage counties comprise some of the finest 
portions of the Western Reserve and here is where consolidation of 
schools is in more complete operation than in any other section of the 
west. 

The question of centralization seems to be largely a campaign of 
education. Massachusetts adopted the idea and centralized schools have 
been in operation there for nearly forty years, and in Ohio I am told 
that the question was agitated some twenty years before it was adopted 
in a single case. 

From an interview with Honorable O. E. Bradfute, Cedarville, Ohio, 
former president of the State Farmers' Institutes, a close observing, schol- 
arly gentleman who has spent his life upon the farm and is now living 
upon one of the best stock farms in the state, I quote: "It was not an 
easy thing to bring about this idea of centralization of schools. There 
are many people in Ohio today who are afraid to tackle this question but 
I can say with confidence that we now have a nucleus, especially up in 
the Western Reserve, from which we can work, and the idea is fast 
spreading all over the state. We have established enough so that we 
know they (the schools) are bound to be a success. They have been 
established long enough for us to know something about it. We know 
they are a success from a financial standpoint and from the standpoint 
and opinion of the people who live in the communities where they have 
been in active operation the longest. I can truthfully say that in Ohio 
we are beginning to regard the centralization as something like the 
measles — catching. I have said to our people that there are four things 
that are going to benefit this country and I think these four things are 
just as applicable to Illinois as they are to Ohio conditions. These are 
the telephone, the daily mail, the electric car and the centralized school 
in the country, and when you have gotten these you have all the advan- 
tages of the city in the country and all the advantages of the country 
besides. No, I do not think that I can advocate too strongly the plan of 
the centralized schools." 

Centralization of schools does not necessarily mean that all the 
schools of a township must be combined into one school house located 
at the geographical center of the township. Three or four districts may 
unite making a two-room school and there may be two or more of such 
schools in a township, or small schools may be centralized with an estab- 
lished graded school where the conditions are favorable. A complete 
centralization means the uniting of all the schools of a township into one 
central graded school, or there may be the consolidation of schools of 
two or more townships just as now we have union district schools. In 



22 



Ohio the township is the unit for school purposes and the schools are 
managed by a township board of nine to fourteen members, made up of 
one director from each of the sub-districts of the township. They have 
no county superintendent of schools but instead there is a township su- 
perintendent who is elected by the township board of trustees. 




Kingsville Centralized School, October, 1900. Children going home from school. 
Centralization of Schools in Ohio began here in 1892. 



Centralization in Ohio Originated in Kingsville, Ashtabula county, 
in 1892, since which time a large number of townships throughout the 
Western Reserve have consolidated their schools and are transporting 
their pupils. In this part of Ohio we find the bulk of the centralized 
schools, not only those which have been longest in operation but "also 
those which are in all stages of work, from the earliest organization to 
complete centralization. In some townships such as in Madison, Lake 
County, there are two or more centralized schools, while in others they are 
centralized about the villages. In a number of instances the writer visited 
different townships which were all embraced in one district and the chil- 
dren were brought to one centralized school. The Kingsville school bears 
all the marks of a thoroughly organized and efficient high school. There 
is a good library which has been increased by a number of volumes bought 
by the literary societies of the school. Twelve grades are taught and 
at the time of the visit there were seventy-foUr pupils in the high school. 
The superintendent is a graduate of Oberlin College and receives a sal- 
ary of $1,200. A significant indication as to how this movement is re- 
garded was the fact that a vote was taken during the present year by 
which two sub-districts which had not been included in the centralized 
school expressed their desire to take advantage of the better opportuni- 



23 

ties and come in as a part of the centralized district. The vote on the 
question of centralization stood six to one in favor of the movement and 
the writer was assured by several who were conversant with the facts 
that almost invariably those who were antagonistic to the movement were 
patrons who did not have children in the school. The two sub-districts 
cited above lay in remote corners of the township and were the last to 
vote -whether they would abandon their schools and join the centralized 
school at' Kingsville. The following written statement from Mr. Wm. 
M. Tyrrell of Kingsville, Ohio, who was a member of the board of edu- 
cation will give a clear understanding as to how he canvassed his dis- 
trict and the results obtained. He says : 

"Desiring to know the wishes of the parents of my district, I only 
visited those who had children attending school, and found that with 
one exception all wanted their children taken to the Kingsville high 
school. 

■ "The one exception had a boy five years old and thought him too 
young to ride so far. 

"The opposition comes from those who have no children to educate, 
or those who care not as to their children's education. 

"The objections raised are of no value when compared with the 
advantages derived from the centralization plan. 

"Having to start so early in the morning is one of the objections 
raised. But where it has been in operation for two years or more, noth- 
ing more is said about it. Another is, greater danger of contracting 
contagious diseases. So far we have not suffered from that cause. Those 
who are backward about accepting advanced ideas have many objections 
that are hot worthy of notice. 

"The Advantages of centralization are many; among them has been 
found that the attendance has been more regular, very seldom are schol- 
ars absent; much more interest is being taken and greater progress made. 
They have better literary advantages, better teachers, more competition in 
their work and in the end are far more accomplished than would have 
been possible had they attended the district school. I might add farther 
that it has been proven that the children have been more warm and com- 
fortable." 

Madison Township in Lake County gives an excellent presentation of 
what might be called partial centralization or the grouping together of 
three or four schools into one without attempting to bring all the schools 
of a township to the geographical center. It would be impracticable to 
do this owing to the shape of Madison Township, extending as it does 
along the shore of Lake Erie ; it is nine miles long and five miles wide. 
At North Madison a building which had originally been used as a store 
had been purchased and fitted over for school purposes, and four district 
schools were centralized at this point. Three teachers were in charge 
and gave instruction to 112 pupils, including all the grades from the first 
to the eleventh. Pupils were brought to this school by vans from a dis- 
tance of four miles. The school was well organized. In the same town- 
ship the board decided to centralize two schools. The school houses were 
moved to a common point between the two and here the eight grades 



24 



were divided into two groups which were given to the teachers who 
had been teaching in the separate sub-districts. In Madison Township 
significant testimony was developed as to the effect of centralization 
in bringing out and securing the attendance of more pupils ; for example, 
I was told of one of the abandoned schools which originally had but four 
pupils in attendance yet when wagons went over that route to transport 
the four children of this district to the centralized school, instead of four, 
eight pupils presented themselves and were in constant attendance. Again 
in the same township there was a case where the abandoned school had 
an attendance of only ten pupils, yet on the first morning when the con- 
veyance made the round in that district eighteen children presented them- 
selves to be transported to the centralized school. The superintendent, of 
this school, Mr. John R. Adams, says"The movement was at the beginning 
thoroughly opposed, but now there is no objection evidenced and a prop- 
osition to go back to the old ways would not be entertained at all. In 
place of a six and seven months' school year, all of the schools of the 
township now have nine months' school." 




Centralized Country School Building, Green Township, Trumbull County, Ohio, 

erected 1900. To this school are brought all the children of the township 

and nine wagons are employed in tne transportation. 



A still more striking example of what consolidation has accomplished 
in northwestern Ohio is found in the schools of Green township, Trumbull 
County. It will amply repay an interested enquirer to visit and investigate 
this place not only as to the general methods in rural school work but as 
an example of what may be done. It would almost make a convert of the 
most doubtful to the plan. The school building is a handsome brick 
structure, slate roofed, steam heated, with the most improved seats in 
all the rooms, musical instruments, library, etc. It is located in the exact 
geographical center of the township, which is a distinctly rural com- 
munity, with only the school building and a church. It is eleven miles 
from one railroad and six miles from another. The building was con- 



25 

structed in 1900 at a cost of about $6,000. The first vote for organiza- 
tion stood 135 for and 50 against consolidation, but about two months 
later when the second vote was taken to bond the township for $2,000 
additional, the vote at this time stood 75 for and 9 against, and three 
of those who voted against consolidation the last time told me they were 
forced to admit that the school was a success and they were now glad 
that it carried. To this building are brought all the children of the entire 
township, numbering about 180, who are transported by eight wagons, 
the cost aggregating for the township but a trifle higher than under the 
old system. 

Here the writer saw pupils of all ages and sizes, from the little ones 
in the primary grade to the large boys and girls belonging to the upper 
classes, and it was the most interesting sight of the entire trip to see 
the wagons come in with the children promptly at 8:45 in the morning 
and leave with them in the afternoon. Everything moved with military 
precision. There was no friction anywhere. The writer took a drive in 
one of these vans making the entire trip. The drivers had no complaint 
to make, were satisfied with what they were getting and in most cases 
were the parents of some of the school children. We made a special point 
to talk with many parents throughout the township and did not find any 
adverse criticism in this section. We were fortunate in being at this place 
the evening of the annual exhibition of the junior class, and the same 
vans which took the pupils home from school brought them all back 
again at 7:30 in the evening to attend this entertainment. The program 
was a most creditable one and a number of the speakers referred with 
pride to the benefits which they were deriving from their centralized 
school. One could not help observing the interest and enthusiasm pervad- 
ing this genuine rural school conducted on the common-sense basis, re- 
sulting in a most wholesome uplift to a country community. It was cer- 
tainly a spectacle worth going a long way to see, and as we visited the 
school next morning the regular school work certainly reflected great 
credit upon the teachers, who seemed to have developed new ideas in 
teaching, evidently as a part of the new system. Not only this but we 
could see that the social and home life of the vicinity had been touched 
by the new order of things. 

The value of personal enthusiasm and a pride in school work was 
never more fully illustrated than in the school at Green township, for it 
must be remembered that this is wholly a rural township and this strictly 
a rural school with the children scattered over twenty-five scquare miles 
of territory. As one watched the wagons back up to the school house 
steps and thought of what it all meant one could not help being convinced 
that here was an advance step in the solution of the country school 
problem, because this work was being done in the country and six miles 
from the nearest railroad. Four minutes from the time the bell was 
rung for dismissal the 180 odd children were all loaded into the vans 
and driven away. Order and precision of movement similar to that of 
a military training school was observable; no confusion, no noise or 
scurrying for precedence, but perfect order was maintained and every 
courtesy shown as the children took their seats in the van. If a child 



26 

takes sick at the school he is sent home at public expense. This has oc- 
curred, I was told, four times in the past three years. As one of the 
parents said, "It is a great comfort to know that if occasion demanded 
it my children will be brought home." As to the character of the work 
done in this well graded six-room high school as compared with that 
of the nine scattering schools, there is no room for argument, there is 
absolutely no comparison possible. 

Two years ago the trustees of Nelson Township, Portage County, sent 
a committee to visit Gustavus and Green Townships. This committee 
spent four days investigating the conditions found there. The committee 
was composed of representatives from both sides of the question, and in 
the course of this investigation' a thorough canvass of the township was 
made for the purpose of getting public opinion on the subject, and a 
member of this committee told me that of fifty-six persons interviewed 
forty-five were in favor of the system, four were indifferent and seven 
against, and of the seven who were against the system six were 
without children in attendance at the school. These circumstances com- 
bined to make Green and Gustavus townships typical examples of suc- 
cessful co-operation. Courteous officials and an enthusiastic and mag- 
netic class of thoroughly trained teachers working in an appreciative com- 
munity could not but be successful. The advantages of an up-to-date and 
thoroughly conducted high school were in this rural community shared 
alike by all the children of the township. 

The school building at Gustavus is a large two-story frame building, 
erected in 1898 at a cost of $3,500, and here again is a school building 
standing at the exact center of a township which had formerly nine dis- 
tricts. Four teachers are employed in this school and nine wagons con- 
vey an average of 160 pupils for eight months in the year. Mr. Philo 
Gates, who for thirty years had been township treasurer, says that, upon 
the average, taxation has somewhat increased, yet the cost per capita is 
much less than it was formerly. When the organization was first voted 
upon it was carried with - but seventeen majority, but now he knows of 
only two in the township who object to the centralization. Mr. Webb, a 
leading farmer, says that he has had children attending school under 
both systems and believes that, six months under the central system is as 
good as nine months under the old district plan. The routes throughout 
this township were let to the lowest bidder, the successful bidder being 
required to give a bond for the fulfilling of his contract and also for the 
good conduct of himself and the care of the pupils he carries ; further, he 
is required to provide comfortable and well-covered vans in which to 
carry the children, also furnishes blankets and robes and in cold weather 
soap-stones or oil stove heaters. The vans carry on an average, about 
twenty pupils each. The children step into these vans at the roadside 
right from their own gate and are set down upon the school house 
grounds. There is no tramping through the mud and snow. The long- 
est distance traveled by any van in either Green or Gustavus township is 
about six miles and the shortest route about three miles. The average 
cost per van is $1.10 per day. As a prominent farmer, Mr. Dick, said 
to me, "There are far better results to come when we remember that 



27 

with the centralizing of our schools comes a regularly accredited school 
with all modern facilities for the advancement of our young people until 
our schools here in this rural community stand upon an equal footing 
with the high school of our towns." Mr. Lyons said, "The poor man 
who has heretofore only been able to send his children to the district 
school now has the pleasure of seeing them securing the. best education 
that could be provided by the county." One of the strongest advocates of 
the system was a man who lived in sight of one of the original school 
houses which later was abandoned. He said, "I was utterly opposed to 
the system. I signed a petition against it and circulated it with others. 
In fact, I went to Painesville and made application for an injunction to 
restrain the township trustees from moving the old school house, but 
now I would not go back to the old way for anything." This man 
has two children in school at the present time. Another man who for- 
merly voted against the measure, said "You could not hire me to go 
back to the old system. I strongly opposed it but am now sending four 
children to school, and as I often remark to my wife, is it not nice that 
our children are not but in the storm today." This man said to me that 
the finest feature of the system is the transportation of the children. 




Diagram of Gustavus Township, Trumbull County, Ohio, 
Showing Transportation Routes. 



28 



Hon. C. G. Williams, a prominent farmer of Gustavus township, a 
worker in Ohio farmers' institutes and a frequent contributor to the agri- 
cultural papers, says in the "Ohio Farmer," in answer to queries : "We 
pay our drivers from $1.00 to $1.50 per day according to the length of 
route. Our average is $1.28. In adjoining townships, all of which 
are centralized, I think the cost is a little more, perhaps $1.40 per day. 
The routes are from two and one-half to five miles. This is very cheap, 
but the facts remain that there are always more bidders than routes. You 
see the small farmer can make the trip in about four hours, and a good 
part of the year he has nothing else to do, and nothing perhaps for the 
team to do. It is so much extra money." In answer to the question, is 
it advisable to have more than one central school, he says: "That is a 
local consideration, but with townships, such as ours, with a small hamlet 
near the center, most assuredly not. It takes numbers to make a good 
school, to give inspiration. Few, if any, of our townships have as many 
pupils as can be cared for, even under centralization. It would be folly 
to run two corps of teachers. As to expense, a careful going over of the 
books of our township clerk shows that we are paying something like 
$250 more per year under the new system than we did under the old. 
This is for the school year ending last August, as compared with the last 
year under the old system. This small sum, however, pays for two months 
more of high school than we formerly had. The per capita expense is 
no greater." 




Going home from School, Gustavus Township, Trumbull County, Ohio. 



These wagons are fitted with curtains, lap robes and if necessary with 
oil stoves for severe weather. The longest route is five miles 
The routes pay as follows : 



29 

ROUTE. AMOUNT. MILES TRAVELLED. 

No. I.. $i-S5 per day 5 miles 

No. 2 98 per day 3 ^ miles 

No. 3 69 per day... ...2 V% miles 

No. 4 1.50 per day 5 miles 

No. 5 1.25 per day 3 % miles 

No. 6 1-45 per day 4 % miles 

No. 7 1.40 per day , 4 ^ miles 

No. 8 1.48 per day 5 miles 

No. 9 95 per day 3 ^ miles 

Average paid each driver $1.25 per day. Average distance travelled 
four miles. 

At Aurora, Portage County, the patrons took up the matter of central- 
izing about six years ago and made arrangements to convey the pupils of 
the eleven districts to these central schools. One of the trustees told me 
that after four years' preliminary trial the people have become satisfied 
with the question of permanency and two years ago there was erected 
one central school building which accommodates the 120 pupils in attend- 
ance. Over two-thirds of these" are conveyed in wagons. The average 
daily attendance is 95 per cent of the enrollment as compared with only 
about 65 per cent under the old sub-district plan. The township treas- 
urer told me that the aggregate cost of the eleven districts for the two 
years preceding the centralization was a little over $4,000 per annum for 
an eight months' school, while the cost of the centralized school has 
not exceeded $3,800 for 9 1-2 months' school. In answer to my question 
as to whether the patrons were satisfied he replied "We do not know of 
any one who wants to return to the old plan. Every one is satisfied." 

In Trumbull Township, Ashtabula County, one of the trustees told me 
that his township was centralized in 1899. Originally eight districts were 
reduced to one centrally located and employing three teachers. The ten 
grades now taught would be advanced next year to twelve. There was 
strong opposition at first and he himself was the principal opponent; but 
the school is successful, satisfaction is increasing, more interest is ap- 
parent on the part of both patrons and children, and other pupils who 
were attending other schools away from home are now attending the 
centralized school. . Taxes were increased about ten per cent. The in- 
crease was largely due to the condition of roads. I found here the most 
heavy clay roads on my trip, and I am told that they are very bad a por- 
tion of the year but that the wagons were able to make the trip on 
schedule time. 

In another centralized township which I visited, there were originally 
three districts. The roads were quite bad, but the driver of one of the 
vans, Mr. Montgomery, reported but one day missed during the year and 
that because of a heavy snow storm. The teacher, Miss Griswold, re- 
ported that but few of her pupils had been absent or tardy during the 
year. The three sub-districts had, previous to their centralization, an en- 
rollment of twenty-one pupils or an average of just seven per school and 
the per capita cost was $45. There is in the one centralized school an 
enrollment of thirty-five with a per capita cost of $i5-5°- 

It should be borne in mind that in order to centralize a township it 
is not necessary to bring all the schools to the geographical center but 



30 

they may be centralized in two or more places, and there may still remain 
in the township two or three schools which do not enter into the con- 
solidated district. Some people get the idea that all children must be 
carried to the geographical center of the township regardless of condi- 
tions. This is not the case. During our visit to Ohio we saw townships 
which were entirely centralized and those which had but partial central- 
ization. This matter is optional with the patrons of the township, as 
with the township as the unit all questions of rural school centralization 
are matters of local option. 

In a general way the peculiar conditions found in Ohio vary but 
little from the problems which exist in the school system of Illinois. 
Naturally one of the first considerations will be the condition of the roads 
for the transportation of the pupils to the central schools. I will simply 
say that after driving over one hundred miles the writer concluded that 
the average condition of Ohio roads, judging by the ruts and general 
roughness, even as late as the first of May, was not much ahead of that of 
Illinois. In fact the good roads problem in- that state is just as far from 
solution as it is with us, therefore, if the desirability and efficiency of 
the transportation problem depends on the question of roads, Ohio cer- 
tainly has no great advantage. After all the problem of transportation is 
not the first problem in centralization but the last. After spending ten 
days in Ohio, traveling from the Miami valley in the southwestern part of 
the state to the Western Reserve of the northeast and spending more 
time in looking up the objections to the centralized system than inquiring 
into its merits, I will say, that similar testimony to that which has been 
quoted could be continued indefinitely. 

We thoroughly investigated a number of schools situated in different 
townships and counties and in some instances places where the old dis- 
trict school and the centralized rural school were found working side by 
side. In such instances as came under my observation the comparison 
was not at all favorable to the old system. While opposition to centrali- 
zation has in very many instances been active and determined, it was 
the opposition growing out of lack of correct information; the people 
were simply mistaken or misinformed. So those who at first bitterly op- 
posed centralization of schools in most cases frankly acknowledged their 
mistake and were found to be the friends of the plan. We found in- 
stances of this kind in every place which we visited, for while there was 
decided opposition to the plan at the start yet the successful operation of 
the system almost always wins unanimous approval. 

The plan of centralization offers equal advantages to all the children 
of the township. It permits a better grading of the schools and classifi- 
cation of the pupils. It affords an opportunity for thorough work by add- 
ing more weeks of schooling and the addition of higher grades of study. 
Fewer but better and more capable teachers will be employed and retained, 
and besides it brings the stimulating influence of larger classes with the 
spirit of emulation incident thereto. Small schools can not have the vital- 
izing force that comes from larger numbers. Children who are trans- 
ported in comfortable wagons are not exposed to the rigors of inclem- 
ent weather. Tardiness and absence are almost unknown. The parents 



31 



become more deeply interested in the schools. It results in better school 
buildings, better sanitary conditions, better equipment, and all of this a 
a less aggregate expense than under the small district plan 

th. ^ hiIe ^ he u Cen u traIization P ]an « not perfection, nor will it cure all 
the ills with which our educational system is affected, yet it is certainly 
an improvement over the old method and it has substantial advant g " 
that will more than repay the expense and inconvenience incident to the 
reorganization. Better means of education, better training and tronle 

S^r ssibilife must — - -* p«- cS 



of any community. 



The farmers of Illinois are doing well in having a Collet of A<m 
culture built up in connection with the State University, wh re the r s & o s 

rmTll h a a ; e er a c C en a t nC o e f ^ "? ***"*" ^^ ^^ Z 
Zn ♦ . t ° Ur farm b ° yS are able t0 avaiI themselves of this 

• opportunity Let us not stop here but let the spirit which influence tha 
work extend to every township in the way of an enriched course of study 

sTi ; m^ take i; up /7 he centraiized townsh * ^> *»* « - 

S tin ^ a girlS fr ° m thG farm wil1 be P re P a ^d to go to the 

State University and obtain the be%t results from the work tSey th r 
take up; beside s to that large number of boys and girls for whom 
he district f school is their only alma mater there will come'th op^u ™ 
of getting from their own homes the best of high school training If c en 
tralization is good for Ohio we want the privilege of applying * wherever 
conditions and environment will permit. It has been proved o be 

" prtileS 3 " glrIS ' - W ^ Sh ° Uld - *~ ~ ^- 
All of which is respectfully submitted. Yours truly, ' 

Fred H. Rankin. 

Cost of Transportation 

One of the first questions connected with the free transporta- 
tion of children to centrally located schools serving half a town- 
ship or more is the expense of gathering them from their homes in 
the morning and delivering them again at night. On this point 
full and seemingly accurate data were collected, and all agree that 
transportation is cheaper than schools, and that the first effect of 
transportation is to lessen expense. 

Iowa pays drivers from $25 to $30 per month, according to 
the route. Ihis includes team, covered wagon, robes, etc. Fre- 
quently, if not generally, when the plan has been longest in opera- 
tion the township owns the wagons, and a somewhat lower rate is 
paid for driver and team. There generally seems to be no diffi- 
culty m securing drivers, for no such difficulty is ever mentioned, 
indeed one of the objections commonly found is against letting the 
job to the lowest bidder. * 



32 

Speaking generally one team can transport all the children of 
an average school district. (15 to 20.) This man, team and 
wagon, therefore, at an expense of one dollar to one and one-half 
dollars per day, take the place of a school house, with its heating 
and repairs, and ofttimes of a school teacher as well. It is not 
surprising, then, that it is cheaper to transport the children of a 
small school than to maintain a school for them. 

Superintendent Jones, of Indiana, after an exhaustive study 
of the matter of cost, says, "Any school with an enrollment of 
fewer than twenty pupils may be combined with a similar or larger 
school at no increased expense provided the distance be not too 
great and the roads permit of easy and rapid transit." And he 
adds, "In general it may be said that any school in which the daily 
per capita cost exceeds fifteen cents may be consolidated with other 
schools without increasing the expense." 

Vermont transports 7,651 cnildren for $36,000 per term, or 
a little less than $4.71 apiece. 

Speaking very generally it costs about $1.50 per month for 
each child conveyed to and from school daily. 

Is Transportation Feasible? 

Next to the question of cost, the first objection generally of- 
fered is that it is not feasible because the "roads are often drifted 
in the winter and impassable from mud in the spring." But as it 
is aptly put by Superintendent Devine, of North Dakota, this only 
raises the question whether it shall be the horses or the children 
that shall wade through. 

No one can study these questions, however, without becoming 
satisfied that the state of the roads has a significant bearing, upon 
the case especially upon the cheapness of consolidation, just as it has 
always had upon the health and comfort of our children and will 
continue to have until either with or without consolidation little 
children and young girls will be no longer obliged to wade through 
snow and mud and sit all day with wet feet and clothing as thous- 
ands have been doing for years. This point, when raised, is not a 
new one peculiar to transportation ; it only brings to light a condi- 
tion that has always existed and is as bad for children as for 
horses, and when the point is urged that there are "many days not 
fit for a horse to be taken out," it is difficult to believe that the 
full bearing of the remark can be appreciated or it would not be 
uttered. 



33 

The fact is that many of the schools in operation, notably the 
one at Buffalo Center, Iowa, are surrounded only by mud roads. 
The same is true of many in Indiana and Ohio. This makes a 
seeming difficulty, but milk is transported to the factories regu- 
larly and mail is delivered; then why not children also? 

There is no question but Consolidation of Schools like rural 
delivery of mail goes naturally with better roads, and that both 
will hasten their coming; but it is also true that both are entirely 
feasible under present conditions, and that hesitancy on this ac- 
count is not only to deprive children of their school privileges but 
also to shirk upon them and their feet and legs a job we consider 
too hard for our horses. 

Cost of Consolidation" 

The total cost of consolidation as compared with separate 
schools is variously reported as "much less," "the same," or "it 
costs more but the schools are better." 

These all represent correspondingly different degrees and 
kinds of consolidation. The first refers to the closing of a small 
school of but few pupils and transporting them, often in a body, 
to a neighboring school able to receive them with no addition to 
the teaching force. In this case transportation and a nominal tui- 
tion are the only outlay, and there is saved one teacher and the 
cost of maintaining and heating a school house. 

The second case refers to a moderate consolidation in which sev- 
eral schools are combined, and graded, and in which fewer but 
better teachers are employed — better schools at no additional ex- 
pense. 

The third case refers to comparatively complete consolidation 
with a central building often costing $10,000.00 to $12,000.00, 
with three to five teachers and doing one or two years of high 
school work. 

Stated briefly it means that consolidation will secure as good 
schools with much less outlay, or better schools with the same out- 
lay, as the patrons may desire. It also means that it makes possi- 
ble a far better school than can be provided otherwise for the 
country child unless he move to town, and it is the only known way 
of providing higher education for the country children within 
reach of their homes. 

As an example of what may be accomplished by consolidation 
but with practically the same outlay of money the following is 
taken from the Indiana Eeport of 1902 :* 

*See also the experience of Gustavus township, Trumbull county, Ohio, under 
''What Has Been Done," page in. 



34 

"As a solution to the rural school problem, the school at Royerton, 
Ind., is a fruitful field for study. Six districts, comprising an area of 
about eighteen square miles, have been combined into one. The union 
school is located at RoyertOn. Under the separate district plan seven 
teachers were employed — two at Royerton and one in each of the other 
districts. Now five are employed in the union school, a difference of two 
teachers resulting from the change. Three teachers are doing grade work, 
one does high school work, and one divides his time between grade and 
high school work. Some little high school work was given when there 
were but two teachers in the Royerton school, but no high school work 
was given in the district schools outside of the Royerton school. Under 
the separate district plan seven rooms were maintained. Now there are 
but four, and a small room used for recitations, which adds no expense. 
No additional buildings were needed at Royerton, due to the fact that there 
was an old building which had not been used for several years. Thus 
there has been a saving in tuition by reducing the number of teachers. 
Not considering the high school, four teachers do the work formerly done 
by seven teachers — a difference of three. The cost of fuel, supplies, and 
repairs for seven rooms has been reduced to the cost of four. There are 
190 pupils enrolled in the school, 129 of whom are conveyed from the 
abandoned schools — about two-thirds of the number enrolled in the union 
school. The daily expense for transportation is $8.75. The following will 
show the comparative cost of the two plans : 

DISTRICT PLAN. 

Salaries for s'even teachers for seven months $2,492 00 

Institute fee for seven institutes 124 60 

.'. Fuel for seven rooms at $30 per room.' 210 00 

Supplies for seven rooms at $10 per room 70 00 

Repairs at $20 per room 140 00 

Total $3,036 60 

CONSOLIDATION PLAN. 

Salaries for four teachers for seven months $1,44-2 00 

Institute fee for seven institutes 72 10 

Fuel for four rooms at $30 per room 120 00 

Supplies for four rooms at $10 per room 40 00 

Repairs at $20 per room 80 00 

Total $1,75410 

Transportation, at $8.87 per day 1,225 00 

Difference in favor of consolidation 57 50 

$3,036 60 
"The salaries shown in the above estimate are the actual salaries paid 
the teachers. Buildings are not included. There was no additional ex- 
pense for buildings." 

For examples of what has been done at a greater outlay of 
money, see the account of the Kingsville School in Superintend- 



85 

ent Kankin's report, and the one of Green township, Trumbull 
County, Ohio, both occupying expensive, steam-heated and well 
ventilated brick buildings, supplied with all the conveniences of a 
high class city school. 

Objections 
Consolidation is generally bitterly opposed when first sug- 
gested. The principal objections are as follows: 

1. It will cost too much. 

2. The roads are not suitable. 

3. The roads and weather are often unfit to take out a team. 

4. It is better for the children to walk. 

5. It compels a cold lunch at school. 

6. It will reduce the value of farm lands in the neighborhood 
of abandoned school houses. 

7. There is sentiment against removing "The old school 
house." 

8. It will throw many teachers out of employment. 

9. It takes children too far from home. 

A close study of the facts shows that these objections are not 
sustained by experience. 

Advantages oe Consolidation 

1. It is much cheaper for the same grade of school. 

2. At the same expense much better schools can be provided, 
because fewer teachers being needed a better grade can be secured ; 
a better division of labor is established, and better supervision is 
possible. 

3. It makes possible a country school equal in every sense to 
the best city schools, yet within the reach of farm homes. JSTo 
other system has been tried or even proposed that can accomplish 
this or guarantee to the country child the same educational ad- 
vantages as are afforded the city child without taking him out of his 
home and to the city ; or what is the same thing, preserve intact the 
virility of country life. All this can be accomplished without 
even a small village as a center, for some of the best schools have 
no connection with any town but, like country homes stand in the 
groves as a part of nature. 

4. The health . of the children is better when conveyed in 
wagons and landed warm and dry than when sitting all day with 
wet feet and draggled clothing after tramping through all kinds 
of roads in all kinds of weather. 



86 

5. Children are protected from the danger of those offences 
to decency and good morals, so common on the road going to and 
from school, and that are so well understood by everybody who has 
ever taught a country school. 

6. The number who will attend school is found to be larger 
when children are conveyed; the attendance is more regular and 
tardiness is unknown. 

7. The health is noticeably better, especially as regards colds. 

8. The inspiration that comes with numbers puts life into the 
school that is impossible in glasses of one or two each. It also 
militates against that self -consciousness due to lack of association 
so often noticeable in country children as it does against the dom- 
ineering influence of one or two "hig scholars" in a small school. 

9. The teachers feel and exhibit the effect of contact with 
other teachers, a condition in marked contrast With that of one 
working alone month after month with no companionship but that 
of children. 

10. It makes possible the employment of at least one experi- 
enced, well educated, broad-minded teacher, under whose super- 
vision even young and inexperienced teachers covering fewer 
things will do far better than when working alone trying to teach 
everything. 

11. This makes possible the conduct of a school with the 
proper regard to the industries and professions of life, and it is the 
only way in which agriculture, nature study, and household science 
can ever be generally introduced into the country schools. 

12. It equalizes the cost of schooling, making it no more per 
capita for an outlying, thinly populated district than for any 
other. 

13. It increases property values as a whole for those who care 
to sell and it broadens life for those who stay. 

14. It eliminates illiteracy on the one hand and on the other 
the false views of city life so commonly imbibed by school children, 
thus rationalizing the emigration from country to city. 

15. It makes unnecessarjr the sending of young boys and girls 
away from home for high school privileges ,on the one hand, or 
the breaking up of homes on the other, in "going to town to edu- 
cate the children." 



37 

Disadvantages 

None. — The most searching inquiry has failed to discover 
anything worthy of mention in this connection, except the possi- 
bility of children being taken ill at school. Inasmuch as the rules 
generally provide that such a child shall be immediately taken 
home in a comfortable conveyance, this seeming disadvantage is 
after all a substantial advantage over walking even a shorter dis- 
tance. Indeed the amount of travel under consolidation is far less 
than might be supposed as the routes are seldom over four miles 
long. 

Difficulties 

There is no gainsaying the fact that three real difficulties at- 
tend consolidation, viz. : 

1. Bad roads, which though not unsurmountable are yet great 
obstacles to its best operation. In this is also involved all other 
traffic as well, particularly rural delivery of mails, and delivery 
of milk.. Eoads will improve and in the meantime mail and milk 
will be delivered. To say that children cannot be hauled is to 
throw upon them a burden we are not willing to put upon horses. 

2. Bad drivers. — For obvious reasons this is a point always 
to be guarded. Few complaints have been reported however, and 
from the fact that no difficulty seems to be experienced in secur- 
ing drivers in abundance most of whom are parents and many of 
whom are mothers it is apparently an element easily controlled, 
and while it is a matter capable of much abuse it appears in prac- 
tice to give little difficulty. 

3. Prejudice in advance of trial. This is generally strong, 
especially where the small district plan is already in operation, 
and a long list of objections is certain to be filed against the under- 
taking. These must be reckoned with in advance, though they 
disappear with trial, and no case is on record in which the change 
has been made back again from consolidation to the small school. 
As might be expected, consolidation is most easily and naturally 
effected in states where some sort of township organization exists, 
and least easily in those sections in which the local organization 
and community sentiment are strongest. 

Conclusions 
Whatever differences of opinion may exist among men who 
have studied this question, all must agree upon the following 
points : 



38 

1. That many country school districts are so small and weak 
that no school is conducted. 

2. That many others consist of but three or four pupils and 
the expense for elementary schooling frequently rises to more than 
$100.00 per pupil, which is higher than the tuition for collegiate 
instruction. 

3. That at least one-third of the country schools are too small 
to be even fairly successful. 

4. That when the school is of fair size, consisting of many 
classes of few each, with but one teacher to do the work, the time 
is frittered away in a large number of short recitations, often but 
five minutes each. 

5. That fully one-third of all the teachers have had less than 
one year's experience. 

6. That the best teachers are taken for the graded schools, 
and that of those available for country schools, from fifty to sev- 
enty-five per cent, are "young girls" who have had no more train- 
ing than is given in the school they are to attempt to teach. 

7. That when schools are established within walking distances 
of each other, the above mentioned conditions are certain to follow. 

8. That as conditions exist today little children walk long 
distances and suffer much discomfort and ill-health by reason of 
exposure to storms and from sitting all day with wet feet and 
damp clothing after wading snow drifts, slush, and mud on the 
way to school. This is especially true of young girls. 

9. That the only way ever tried or even proposed by which 
these schools can be made effective is to combine them into smaller 
numbers with fewer and better teachers whose work can then be 
better divided and better supervised. 

10. That the only humane way of putting children of all 
ages and conditions into school through all kinds of weather is to 
transport them in wagons that are covered and, when necessary, 
warmed. 

11. That consolidation and transportation tend greatly to les- 
sen expense so that the same grade of schools can be had much 
cheaper, or a far better grade at the same expense, as patrons may 
desire, or, if they please, a' full equivalent of the best city schools 
may be established and conducted at slightly greater cost than 
heretofore and at a much lower rate than in the city. 



39 

12. That as things are today without consolidation, country 
people not only pay more for elementary instruction alone than 
city schools cost, including the high school course, but, in addition, 
farmers pay out vast sums for tuition and other expenses of their 
older children attending city schools for what is not offered at 
home. 

13. That this condition often results in the whole family 
"moving to town to educate the children" to the damage of the 
school left behind, to the disadvantage of the business, at the ex- 
pense of breaking up the old home and at the risk of giving the 
family false ideas of both city and country life. 

14. That the only proper way to educate a child up to and 
including the high school is to do it without disturbing his home 
or taking him out of it, and that the country child is entitled to 
as good an education as the city child and at no more risk or in- 
convenience to him or his family. 

15. That it is not necessary to consolidate about a village 
school, but that wherever it is done the result should be a country 
and not a city school. 

16. That consolidation is the only way of securing really good 
country schools, and it is the only means of introducing the study 
of agriculture generally into the public schools. 

17. No one can avoid the conclusion that the objections offered 
in advance of trial are mostly either fanciful or selfish; that they 
are not realized in practice; that consolidation is the only plan 
tried or proposed by which . the country child can secure such an 
education as modern- conditions demand, and such as is already 
afforded the city child. 

18. It cheapens the expense and equalizes the cost; it pro- 
tects the health and morals of the child and makes the introduction 
of agriculture and the other industries possible; it enhances the 
value of farm property as a whole ; it brightens and broadens coun- 
try life; it preserves its virility unimpaired and rationalizes the 
movement toward population centers. Such difficulties as are 
found are trivial or transient, or both, and are such as would not 
stand in the way of any commercial enterprise for a moment. 

19. Consolidation of country schools is the solution of the 
problem of agricultural education and it is the only complete solu- 
tion that has been offered. 



APPENDIX 



The following extracts serve to show what well known men 
have said upon this subject. The thoughts herein expressed to- 
gether with what has been quoted previously and much that has 
not been quoted, were chiefly instrumental in assisting the college 
to form its opinion upon Consolidation: 

Hon. Wm. T. Harris, Commissioner of Education, says : — "It has been 
frequently demonstrated and generally conceded that it would be better, 
both on economical and pedagogical grounds, to unite the many small and 
weak schools of a township, dispersed over a large extent of territory 
into a few strong, well equipped and well conducted graded schools lo- 
cated at convenient points." 

The following from Horace Mann, voices a common sentiment, touch- 
ing the proper geographical unit of school territory. He said, "I con- 
sider the law of 1789 authorizing towns (townships) to divide themselves 
into districts the most unfortunate law on the subject of common schools 
ever enacted in the state." (10th report Sec'y Board of Education for 
Mass., p. 130.) 

Honorable Alfred Bayliss, superintendent of public instruc- 
tion for Illinois, in his 1900 report, pages 50 to 53, says : 

THE RURAL SCHOOLS 

"In Illinois, as elsewhere, the country school is just now the chief 
object of solicitude. Students of education in all parts of the country 
are lamenting its alleged decline and seeking to find and state the cause. 
The large communities are able to take care of themselves, and are quite 
generally doing it. In the country the terms are shorter. The teachers 
are not so well paid. Facilities are inadequate. The surroundings are 
depressing. Classification is difficult. Gradation is impossible. A teacher 
no sooner develops aptitude for her work than she is wanted in the near- 
est "graded" school. She goes, because she can get more dollars a month 
for more months in the year. She goes because the large school has light, 
warmth, trees, books, pictures — an environment. She goes where she will 
have from eight to twelve classes a day instead of thirty or forty. She 
goes to place herself under the stimulating influences of comparison, com- 
petition, example, criticism, correction, and co-operation. She leaves a 
miscellaneous collection of boys and girls to go to an organized school. 
It is her plain duty to go — she thinks. 

"This is one view. There is another. Under the right conditions the 
country school has still some advantages, at least for the younger children, 
over its more highly organized city neighbor. The chief of these is the 
superior "timbre"i — quality — of the pupils. They have better physical 
health, better nerves, and consequently more will power. They are more 



41 

likely to have slept well and sufficiently the night before. More home re- 
sponsibilities induces more independence, manifesting itself in both thought 
and action. The mixed school favors the community spirit. The country 
school is "nearer to nature's heart." The city school has in the past been 
the victim of over organization. Cranks have sometimes appeared, who 
reasoned that because so much work might be done in eight years by the 
mythical "average pupil," that all pupils should do that much, and none 
should do more; that exactly one-eighth of it should be done annually, 
one-ninth of one-eighth of it monthly, one-fourth of that weekly, and pre- 
cisely one-fifth of one-fourth of one-ninth of one-eighth of the whole 
should be done each day, even if the victim of such procrustean madness 
had to take his books home and study half the evening. The country 
school has at least escaped that epidemic. Some of them, not many, are 
housed in well-lighted, well-warmed and ventilated little buildings. Some 
have a library, a museum of curiosties collected by the children themselves 
from all parts of the country by correspondence with other children, in 
exchange for things found in their own neighborhood — sometimes even 
from other countries— some even have pictures, a workshop, a vegetable 
garden, a flower garden, trees and a live teacher. The country school 
that has all, or most of these things, and can maintain them, keeping the 
school open for eight or nine months a year, would better let well enough 
alone. They that are whole need not a physician. It is the weak districts 
that must be strengthened. 

"One county superintendent suggests a source of weakness that can 
not be questioned. Five schools enrolled exactly ten, thirteen' schools 
fewer than ten, and four schools fewer than five pupils each. Curiously 
enough, his nearest neighbor suggests that 'It will be a joyous day for 
the children when distance can be annihilated and several of these small 
schools consolidated into an efficient organization.' For the benefit of 
the small schools, in unsanitary school houses, without libraries inside, or 
shade trees outside, and all districts unable to maintain eight months school 
a year — six months is not enough— I recommend legislation authorizing the 
payment of public money for the transportation of children to and from 
the schools, when the people of any district so direct, at an annual school 
election, or at a special election called for the purpose of voting upon that 
question. Such a law is now in operation in thirteen states. Massachu- 
setts began to consolidate weak districts and convey children to school 
twenty-six years ago. The growth of the plan in popular favor may be 
measured by the sums expended for this purpose during the last ten 
years. $24,145.12 in 1889-90 and $127,419.22 in 1898-99. 

"Such illustrations could be multiplied. The plan works out. The 
health of children is improved by it, because of the diminished exposure 
to stormy weather. School attendance is increased, both in regularity and 
in the number of pupils. Tardiness and truancy disappear. The school 
year is lengthened. Better teachers are employed. Teachers can be better 
paid. I asked one little fellow of ten or twelve years how he liked the 
union school. 'Oh, it's great,' he said, 'to be where something is going 
on.' And, perhaps, it is from this widened circle of acquaintance, extend- 
ing beyond the children to the whole community, that one of the great 



42 

benefits is .to be derived. The isolation of small schools — ten pupils or 
fewer — is not favorable to intellectual, moral and social growth. The 
young mind grows by contact with other minds, and quite as much by 
contact with those of near its own strength as by the influence of stronger 
ones. If this plan both improves conditions and saves expense, as I firmly 
believe it does, why not make it available for any who want to use it in 
Illinois?" 

President David Felmley of Illinois State Normal University 
says : 

"The increased use of machinery on the farm is depopulating the 
rural districts. Farmers' families are notably smaller than a generation 
ago. The schools are becoming small. Many schools in Illinois enroll 
fewer than five children. Very many schools enroll fewer than ten. 

"A small school is usually a weak school because it lacks the interest, 
importance and inspiration that attaches to a large school. 

"A small school is an expensive school, because of the high cost per 
pupil. To reduce the expenses, cheap and inefficient teachers are often 
employed. 

"The remedy is consolidation. 

"Our present school system was adapted to an old order of things — 
hand labor on the farms, a dense rural population, decentralization and 
small enterprises in all things. We must reorganize our schools in ac- 
cordance with changed conditions." 

U. J. Hoffman, Superintendent of Schools for LaSalle county, 
writes as follows under date of January 26, 1903 : 

"My experience in supervising country schools for eight years has 
convinced me that these schools do only one-half that they should do for 
the children. The reasons for this waste are : 

"i. The schools are too small, and are growing smaller every year. 
There can be little interest on the part of teacher, pupils, and school 
board in a school of from three to ten pupils. 

"2. The attendance is very irregular. The lack of interest, great 
distance to walk, bad roads and weather, and something to do at home 
are at the root of this evil. 

"3. The school being small is a universal excuse for low wages and 
the utter neglect of the buildings. 

"4. The district lines work great hardship. Many children are a 
long distance from their own school and only a short distance from a 
school which they are not permitted to attend. Some districts are poor, 
the taxable property being meagre, while adjoining districts have valu- 
able land and valuable railroad property. Some districts have no ma- 
terial fit for school directors. 

"5. In a township having nine schools the expense for houses, re- 
pairs, fuel, insurance and money wasted by incompetent management is 
very large. 

"6. The children's clothing, health, and morals are in great danger 
on the way to and from school. 



43 

"y. The teachers being so numerous and the supervision being neces- 
sarily defective the constant changing of teachers makes the best school 
impossible. 

"The centralized school and the transportation of the children to and 
from school is the only remedy for these evils." 

Superintendent 0. J. Kern, of Kockford, Illinois, has studied 
this question exhaustively. The following letter gives his views on 
Consolidation : 

Office of County Superintendent of Schools. 

Rockford, III., Jan. .26, 1903. 
Dean Davenport, College of Agriculture, University of Illinois. 

Dear Sir : — It seems to me that the improvement of the Country 
School is the most important question that can engage the attention of 
the farmers of Illinois for the next ten years. 

Our College of Agriculture and Experiment Station in connection 
with the University of Illinois, are making some valuable discoveries of 
vast importance to the agricultural interests of our state. The problem 
is how to make this available for instruction in the district schools where, 
at present, 90 per cent of our country children get their only training, 
so far as books are concerned, under conditions more or less unfavorable. 
We are on the threshhold of great developments in agricultural thought 
and practice. The centralized country school, with a course suited to 
country conditions, with a small experimental field for the farmer boys 
and girls, will be the connecting link between the farm and our higher 
institutions of agricultural training, just as now the city high school is 
the connecting link between the various activities of the city and the pro- 
fessional schools of the colleges and universities. 

In the country we need better buildings, better material equipment, 
larger classes, the inspiration of numbers, a quickening of social life, 
better qualified and better paid teachers ; in short all those things for 
which farmers are now moving to the cities. The centralized school will 
not only bring these things to country life, but it also sustains a vital 
relation to successful teaching of agriculture in the country schools. 
(Signed.) O. J. Kern, 

. • Supt. Schools, Winnebago Co., III. 

The First Consolidated School in Illinois 

The first consolidated school in Illinois has been organized in 
Winnebago county, and the school opened at the central building 
February 1, 1904. 

The first movement towards consolidation was in February, 
1899, when the citizens of Seward and vicinity invited 0. J. Kern, 
Superintendent of Schools of Winnebago county, to deliver an ad- 
dress upon the subject "Township High Schools." This was with 
a view of organizing such a school at the village of Seward, which 



44 



is a small station on the Illinois Central Bailroad, fifteen miles 
from Rockford. This address was delivered February 22, 1899, 
the Superintendent taking the position that what was needed at 
Seward was not a township school, but the consolidation of a num- 
ber of the outlying small district schools. The idea was not well 
received at the time, only one or two expressing assent to the posi- 
tion taken by the Superintendent. 

Sentiment grew, however, and in March, 1903, petitions look- 
ing toward consolidation were circulated in three districts, 90, 91, 




Lofe. 



45 



and 93. In district 90, thirty-seven favored and twelve opposed 
the project; in district 91 fifteen favored and eleven opposed, and 
in district 93 twenty-one favored and five opposed. 

Thus was organized ,the first consolidated district, covering 
exactly one-third of the township, which is six miles square. It 
contains, therefore, twelve sections or 7,680 acres of land, with an 
assessed valuation of $146,315. As real estate is assessed at one- 
fifth cash value this indicates that the total property of this dis- 
trict, real and personal, is not far from a million dollars. 

A few days after organizing, by a vote of thirty-eight for and 
fifteen against, the people voted to bond the district for $7,000 for 
ten years' time at 4 per cent, and to erect a modern school house 
large enough, for present and prospective needs. A little later by a 
vote of forty-seven to one a site of 3.6 acres of land was purchased 
at a thousand dollars. Plans were drawn and contracts let for a 
$6,000 building. 

Accompanying cuts show the front elevation and the floor 
plans of this building, as well as exterior views of the three school 
houses abandoned. 



66'- 8*- 




DA^mENT PLAN 



6S'- 8" 





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00 
z i 


L 


30' 


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£>- CI 



HALL 



^W VESTIBULE ^T 



HP3T HOOD PLAN 



1 1 1 11 1 1 




1 1 1 1 1 1 1 




1 1. 1 1 1 1 1 


5CH00L 


1 1 1 II 1 1 


QOO/A 








1 II 1 1 1 1 




II 1 1 1 1 




3FC0ND rLDOD DLAN" 



47 

This new building contains four rooms, each capable of accom- 
modating fifty pupils; and in the basement are two large well- 
lighted rooms intended for workshop and for household science, 
respectively. Over the furnace room in the first story are coat 
rooms, and in the second story, the laboratory and library. The 
walls of the building are tastefully tinted, the blackboards are of 
slate, and the floors throughout of hard maple. It is in every way 
an up-to-date and beautiful building, heated by two furnaces and 
seemingly perfectly ventilated. It stands near one corner of the 
site of 3.6 acres, plans for the beautifying of which have been made 
by students of the University of Illinois under the direction of 
Professor J. C. Blair. The cut on inside back cover page shows 
the plan as it will be worked out, a key to which gives the name of 
each tree to be planted whether singly or in groups. 

This building was dedicated January 30, with appropriate 
exercises. School opened the Monday following, February 1, with 
an attendance of 103 pupils,. 15 of whom were non-residents who 
will pay tuition, leaving eighty-eight as representing the attendance 
from the three consolidated districts. It is a significant fact that 
the total registration in the three abandoned districts during the 
entire previous year was only seventy-nine, yet here on the first 
day upon the opening of the consolidated school eighty-eight young 
people presented themselves, a gain of nine the first day as com- 
pared with the total registration under the old plan. This school 
will do all the work heretofore attempted by the abandoned schools 
and two years' high school work in addition. 

Three small weak schools quartered in old battered houses were 
here merged into a single school, well housed in an up-to-date 
modern building. Under the system of instruction it will guaran- 
tee the pupils the work not only of the grades, but that of a two 
years' high school, as well, all at a cost of less than $1.00 per acre 
of the land covered by the district. The advantages to this com- 
munity are evident; indeed they are so apparent in Winnebago 
County that already three other communities are moving in the 
same direction. 

More than to any one else credit is due to Superintendent 
Kern, not only for the achievement at Seward, but for the senti- 
ment of the county, which will proceed to organize still other simi- 
lar schools. 




District 90. Abandoned 19C3. Winnebago County, 111. 




District 91. Abandoned 1903. "Winnebago County, 111. 




District 93. Abandoned 1903. Winnebago CouDty, 111. 




A. Design for the Imppovements anp Pl,a.nting 
Sewapd School- grounds 



PLAN FOR IMPROVEMENT OF GROUNDS, SEWARD CONSOLIDATED SCHOOL. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



021 302 973 3 



"The country child i& entitled to as good an education T as the?city 
child.* '—Kern. 




Going home from school Winnebago county, 111., February 4, 1902. 
Mercury 12 degrees -below zero and a stiff gale- blowing. 



Consolidation of country schools is -the solution of the problem of 
agricultural education, and it is the only complete solution that has 
been offered. 



